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Just war theory is a moral framework that attempts to distinguish justified warfare from unjustified violence by setting conditions for when it is permissible to go to war (jus ad bellum), how war should be fought (jus in bello), and, in more recent expansions, what obligations apply after

Ubuntu rejects Descartes's model of the solitary, self-contained mind, arguing instead that personhood emerges through relationships with others. Where the cogito grounds identity in internal certainty, ubuntu grounds it in communal entanglement, making isolation a form of self-amputation

Gettier's two counterexamples are scenarios in which a person holds a justified true belief that intuitively is not knowledge. The first involves Smith and Jones applying for a job; the second involves Smith's belief about Jones's Ford and Brown in Barcelona. Both show that justified true

No one can be certain we see colors the same. The inverted spectrum argument says that even if two people always name colors identically and behave the same way, one might be experiencing red where the other experiences green. This is possible because color experiences are internal qualia,

The Gettier problem is a set of counterexamples showing that justified true belief is not sufficient for knowledge. A gettiered believer reaches a true conclusion by luck, even though their reasoning is rational and their evidence is good. This forces epistemology to add extra conditions b

Ubuntu's emphasis on communal repair rather than retribution directly shaped the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission, where justice was conceived as re-stitching a torn social fabric rather than isolating an offender through punishment.

The inverted spectrum argument is a philosophical thought experiment that challenges the idea that mental states are identical to physical states. It asks whether two individuals could have color experiences that are systematically inverted—where one person's red is another's green—without

The Gettier problem is a challenge to the ancient definition of knowledge as justified true belief, showing that a person can have a justified, true belief that is nevertheless not knowledge because the truth is a matter of luck. It is the problem of identifying what must be added to justi

Ubuntu is a Nguni Bantu ethical philosophy that holds that a person is a person through other persons. It rejects the isolated, self-sufficient self and instead sees human identity, dignity, and moral obligation as emerging from community. Often summarized as 'I am because we are,' ubuntu

The Gettier problem is a philosophical paradox showing that a justified true belief can still fail to be knowledge, because the belief's truth might be a matter of luck rather than a reliable connection between evidence and fact.